The Six Darshanas

Liberation comes through correct knowledge — and correct knowledge requires a science of valid means of knowing.

The first systematic Indian logic. Defines four pramanas (means of valid knowledge): perception, inference, comparison, verbal testimony. Codifies the five-membered syllogism. Argues that misery arises from false belief; demolish false belief through rigorous inference and liberation follows.

Classical commentator: Vatsyayana (Nyaya-bhashya, 5th c.)

Everything that exists falls into one of six (later seven) padarthas, and matter ultimately consists of indivisible anu (atoms).

Sister-school to Nyaya. Where Nyaya focuses on means of knowing, Vaisheshika focuses on the objects of knowing — proposing six fundamental categories (dravya, guna, karma, samanya, vishesha, samavaya) that classify every possible entity. Anticipated modern atomic theory by 2,500 years.

Classical commentator: Prashastapada (Padartha-dharma-sangraha, 5th c.)

Reality has two independent principles — purusha (witness-consciousness) and prakriti (matter with three gunas). Suffering ends when the witness is no longer mistaken for the witnessed.

Indian dualism. Prakriti unfolds into 23 tattvas (mahat → ahankara → manas → 10 indriyas → 5 tanmatras → 5 mahabhutas). Liberation = viveka (discrimination) between purusha and prakriti. Atheistic in classical formulation but folded into theism by every later Vedantin.

Classical commentator: Vachaspati Mishra (Tattva Kaumudi, 9th c.)

Yoga is the stilling of the modifications of the mind. The witness, freed from identification with the mind, abides in its own nature.

Builds on Sankhya metaphysics but adds an Ishvara. Codifies the eight-limbed (ashtanga) path — yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, samadhi. Distinguishes types of samadhi (savikalpa vs nirvikalpa) and yields the famous "yogah chitta-vritti-nirodhah" definition in 196 sutras.

The Veda is eternal and self-validating. Correct performance of Vedic karma (ritual) produces apurva (unseen merit) that ripens as heaven.

Focuses on the karma-kanda (action portion) of the Veda — the Brahmanas and Samhitas. Develops a precise grammar of injunctions (vidhi), prohibitions (nishedha), and arthavada (eulogy). The classical defender of Vedic ritual orthodoxy. Atheistic in the strict sense (apurva does the work, not gods) but accepts devata-invocation as part of ritual.

Classical commentator: Shabara (Shabara-bhashya, 4th c.) + Kumarila Bhatta + Prabhakara

Brahman is the sole reality. The individual self (jiva) is non-different from Brahman; ignorance (avidya) alone causes the appearance of separation. Liberation = realisation of this identity.

Focuses on the jnana-kanda (knowledge portion) of the Veda — the Upanishads. Codified in 555 sutras of Badarayana. Three classical sub-schools split on the jiva-Brahman relation: Advaita (Shankara — non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja — qualified non-dualism), Dvaita (Madhva — dualism). The dominant darshana of post-classical Hindu thought.

Classical commentator: Adi Shankaracharya (Advaita-bhashya, 8th c.) + Ramanujacharya (11th c.) + Madhvacharya (13th c.)

Advaita

Brahman alone is real; the world is mithya (apparent). Jiva = Brahman. Liberation through jnana — directly realising the non-duality.

Vishishtadvaita

Brahman (Vishnu) is real and so are the souls and the world — but they exist as His body. "Qualified non-dualism." Liberation through prapatti (surrender) + bhakti.

Dvaita

Vishnu, jivas, and matter are eternally distinct. Strict dualism. The jiva is never identical to Brahman, only dependent on Him. Liberation through bhakti.

Dvaitadvaita

Difference + non-difference (bhedabheda). Krishna + Radha as the highest principle. Sakha tradition prominent in Mathura-Vraja.

Shuddhadvaita

Pure non-dualism without illusion. Brahman = Krishna. Liberation through pushti-marga (the path of grace). No maya — the world is real, Krishna's play.

Achintya Bhedabheda

"Inconceivable difference and non-difference." Krishna is the supreme; bhakti via the maha-mantra (Hare Krishna). Foundational for the Gaudiya tradition + ISKCON.

Buddhism

Suffering is, has cause, can end, by the Eightfold Path. No permanent soul (anatta). The pre-eminent nastika critique of the Self.

Jainism

Plural eternal souls (jivas) trapped by karma-matter. Liberation through ahimsa (non-violence), satya, asteya, brahmacharya, aparigraha.

Charvaka / Lokayata

Strict materialism. Only perception is valid pramana. No soul, no afterlife, no karma. Enjoy this body while you live — yāvad jīvet sukhaṁ jīvet.